ANIMAL TESTING OVERVIEW

Animal testing is defined as the use of non-human animals in experiments that seek to control the the variables that affect behaviour or biological system under study. Unlike field studies where animals are simply observed in their natural environments, animal testing is done in establishments such as universities, medical schools, pharmaceutical companies and commercial facilities which provide this service to industry.Animal testing can range from pure research , which investigates with no means of an end, to applied research which aims to solve a problem such as disease, drugs and in the
cosmetic industry.  It is estimated that worldwide, the number of vertebrate animals used ranged from tens of millions to more than 100 million annually.The US official statistics show , in 2014,  834,453 vertebrates were used in research. However, it should be noted that mice, rats, birds, fish, frogs , invertebrates and animals not yet weaned are not included in official statistics as they are not protected by US legislation. These species represent 93% of animals used in research in the EU so if this was applied to the US the total would be between 12 and 25 million.  Most animals are purpose bred for these experiments with a minority that are actually caught the wild of supplied by dealers whom get them from auctions and pounds. Most animals are euthanised after being used.

Supporters of this say that the majority of medical achievements in the 20th centre relied on the use of animals in some form. The Institute for Laboratory Animal Research of the US National Academy of Sciences argues that not even sophisticated computer models can replace animal testing as they are unable to keep up with the complex interactions between molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms and the environment. On the other hand, animal rights organisations argue that it is cruel and poorly regulated, they question the need for and legitimacy of animal testing.  It is also mention that animal models cannot reliably predict effects in humans therefore medical progress is being held back.The fact that some tests are outdated, the costs outright the benefits and that animals have the right not to be used or harm are also points made by the against side.

Animals testing can be dated back to 2nd and 4th centuries BCE where there are references to it in the writings of the Greeks.Aristotle, a Greek philosopher and scientist and Erasistratus, a Greek anatomist and royal physician were some of the first to preform experiments on living animals. An Arabic physician named Avenzoar in the 12 century introduced animals testing as a means to test surgical procedures before using them on human patients. Animals were then used repeatedly for the use of biomedical research. In the 1880's Louis Pasteur used sheep to demonstrate the germ theory of medicine ( That diseases are caused by microorganism called pathogens) by inducing them with anthrax . Ivan Pavlov, in the 1890's, used dogs to describe classical conditioning, basically a learning process in which a response is given to a particular stimulus ( In Pavlov's case his dogs would salivate in response to a buzzer in which they knew they would get food, as opposed to simply salivating to the sight of the food). What isn't popular knowledge about this experiment however is that the dogs used in this experiment were surgically implanted with saliva-catching apparatus onto their muzzles ( basically a tube), the dogs didn't live long after there surgery as a result of starvation, Pavlov developed a 'sham' feeding system where the dogs's oesophagus was removed and an opening, a fistula, was created so that no matter how much the dog ate no food would make it to the stomach.

The first animal protection law was introduced in 1822 in the British parliament which was titled "an Act to protect the cruel and improper Treatment of Cattle' also known as Martin's Act thanks to MP and animal rights campaigner Richard Martin. It included ox, cow, heifer, steer, sheep or other cattle.
Following this was the 1876 Cruelty to Animals Act which set limits on the practice of and instituted a licensing system for animal experimentation. In a nutshell researchers would be prosecuted for cruelty unless the experiment, which did involve inflicting pain upon animals, should only be conducted when " the proposed experiments are absolutely necessary for the due instruction of the persons to save or prolong human life". More so the act also states that the animals used must be anaesthetised, used only once and killed as soon as the study was over.

In 1959 the Three Rs were introduced by W.M.S Rusell and R.L Burch. They are the following:

Replacement, which refers to the preferred use of non-animal methods over animal methods whenever it is possible to achieve the same scientific aims. These methods include computer modelling.

Reduction, which refers to methods that enable researchers to obtain comparable levels of information from fewer animals, or to obtain more information from the same number of animals.

Refinement, which refers to methods that alleviate or minimised potential pain, suffering or distress, and enhance animal welfare for the animals used. These methods include non-invasive techniques.

The most common vertebrate species used are mice, due to their size, ease of handling, low cost and fast reproduction rate,  they also share 99% of their genes with humans therefore are considered the best model of inherited human diseases.  Albino rabbits are used in most eye irritancy tests as rabbits have less tear flow than other animals paired with the lack of eye pigment means the effects are easier to see. Cats are widely used in neurological research, such as studies of vision and hearing. In biomedical research and testing dogs are mostly used. In particular beagles are used as they are gentle and easy to handle.Non-human primates, such as macaques, marmosets, spider monkeys and squirrel monkeys are used in experiments with baboons and chimpanzees are used in the U.S as well. It is estimated that there are around 730 chimpanzees used in US labs and 6,012 were non-human primates were used in European labs. It was found however, in one survey that 89% of singly housed primates exhibited self i juries or abnormal stereotypical behaviours such as rocking, pacing,hair pulling and biting. These primates are used in tests and studies of AIDS, hepatitis, toxicology tests, studies of neurology, behaviour and cognition, reproduction,genetics and xenotransplantation ( the transplantation of living cells, tissues or organs from one species to another). They are often caught from the wild or purpose bred.